Category: Pentateuch

Promises and Redemption (Lev. 26-27)

Chapter twenty-six begins by invoking three of the first five of the Ten Commandments. One might say that Moses is going back to basics. By verse three onward, Moses highlights the blessings and curses for Israel if they keep or violate the Law. This closely resembles Deuteronomy 28. The “engraved stone” of verse two would have been a paving stone with a mosaic design set in the floor of a sanctuary. The threat of beasts of prey in the land, such as lions and bears, would pose no threat to the population (26:6). This reminds the reader of how young David had to learn to combat lions to protect the flock. God promising to multiply them (26:9) harkens back to creation and the royal commission given to humanity (Gen. 1:28). The crux of all of Leviticus is spelled out in 26:11–12. While Israel was previously under a yoke of burdensome labor, God has broken it so that they can now stand upright (26:13). 

Moses shifts from the blessings to curses at 26:14–15. In the following verses, we see the antithesis of verse nine (26:15–17). The simile in 26:19 is a common feature of Assyrian curses and appears also in Deuteronomy 28:23. All of the curses that God sends to Israel if they fail to keep the covenant are meant to be curative of that attitude (26:23–24), but if they persist, God’s judgment will grow more severe. God will once more pause to see if Israel repents, then He will move towards wrath (29:27–28). Even if He goes to the most extreme measure, He will still save them as He has from Egypt (29:44–45). A covenant is both a promise and a threat, and Moses reminds us at the end of this section that each party to the covenant has obligations to the other. 

The final chapter has been studied and attempted to be interpreted within the whole of the book. Many commentators treat it as an appendix to the book. It focuses on voluntary offerings and on the tabernacle’s taxed obligations. However, the book’s final line wraps it up. It’s seen as a formal conclusion that encompasses the whole book while preparing us for Numbers. Leviticus began at the Tent of Meeting and migrated to Sinai. Numbers begin in the wilderness. 

Priestly Regulations and the Levitical Calendar (Lev. 21-25)

Since God intended for Israel not to live as the Egyptians or Canaanites, beginning chapter eighteen with such a plea and ending chapter twenty with it once more, the next things that come are a reflection of that point. Canaanite religion had a cult devoted to the dead. Again, anything linked with death is seen as unclean, so a corpse might have been thought of as intrinsically contaminating. Baldness was associated with pagan mourning rites, so it was to be avoided. Nearing this was a prohibition against cutting the flesh. Disfigurements of any kind were off limits. The High Priest is prohibited from contact with corpses altogether, while priests have exceptions. As we go on, it seems unfair that certain people would be prohibited from the Lord, but we must assume that as an animal without blemish is offered, so is the offerer to be without blemish. However, they may partake of the sacrifice. 

Should a priest be in a state of uncleanness and come in contact with sacred things offered, the priest risks profaning God’s name. It can cost him his priestly privileges. The final verse (v. 15) closes the section as the chapter began: “they shall not profane the holy offerings.” The remainder of the chapter emphasizes acceptable and unacceptable offerings. A parallel can be to our worship. Do we offer what’s acceptable to God or not? Could it be said that in our worship, we, like Nadab and Abihu, offer “strange fire?” Rather than a free-for-all, we have commandments and examples as to how the early church worshiped the Lord. If there were anything unacceptable to Him, we would see it pointed out in some way (cf. 1 Cor. 11:27–30; Matt. 22:11). 

The calendar begins with the Sabbath, leading us to believe that failing to observe these holidays is equivalent to breaking the Sabbath. These are called “holy convocations” (23:4) because there was a call to worship, if you will. Passover is highlighted as a sacred day, and this was to remind them that they were once slaves in Egypt and God delivered them. Of their produce, the firstfruit was to be given to the priests. One meaning behind this was the law of the firstfruits in that what they had was because God provided for them (cf. Exod. 23:19). The Feast of Weeks is Pentecost because it comes fifty days after Passover. This celebrated the harvest God gave. The Feast of Trumpets has been understood as having God take note of Israel through the horn blasts. The Day of Atonement, we have already noted. The Feast of Tabernacles remembers the wandering in the wilderness. Only after this last feast are they told to rejoice before the Lord for a week. This would have occurred after the final harvest of the agricultural year. 

Chapter twenty-four begins with tabernacle matters, including the light and the bread. In many cults, food was placed out for the deity to avoid being treated similarly; to avoid this, it was placed outside the holy of holies, and the priests were to consume it the following Sabbath. Frankincense is a resin and might be transparent in appearance, but it’s to be burned as a token for the bread offering. Next, we switch to a narrative where two men are in a dispute, and one uses the Lord’s name in vain. Apparently, the one who did so has an Egyptian father and an Israelite mother. If you notice in verse eleven, “Of the Lord” is italicized, which means it’s implied and not actually in the text. The scribal community that preserved the text might have found it difficult to actually place YHVH in the text since the usage is one of vilification. The names that follow read, “His mother’s name was Retribution, the daughter of Law-suit, of the tribe of Judgment.” Perhaps because God orders capital punishment, He doesn’t wish for this to be seen as giving license to just take life on every whim (cf. Exod. 21:23–25). 

Chapter twenty-five begins by reminding us that all of this is occurring at Mount Sinai, which is situated from Exodus 19 onward. The end of this chapter coincides with God seemingly announcing himself as their king, and in the ancient world, when a king began his reign, he often freed slaves. At this point, Israel is officially a free people, but a vassal to God. By verse ten, they were to proclaim “liberty” throughout the land. The actual term means “release,” which refers to a moratorium on debts and indeture. God promises to give Israel such a harvest that they can Sabbath on the year of Jubilee (25:21). Land that was used as collateral is obliged to be sold back to the original owner or the nearest kinsman. An idiom is used in verse thirty-five: “falls into poverty” is literally “his hand buckle under you.” Hand is another way of referring to a person’s power, so economic collapse may be in mind. God reminds them that they aren’t to treat one another as slaves, because they are all “slaves” of God (25:42) and are not to be treated as they were in Egypt. While there was a Sabbath year every seven years, a Jubilee was every fifty years. A person would celebrate at least one Jubilee in their lifetime. 

Moral Purity (Lev. 18-20)

This section (Lev. 18–20) begins with the declaration at the beginning of a set of legal injunctions. It’s as if God is saying, “By the authority vested in me as your sovereign, you shall or shall not.” What sets this apart is the comparison between Egypt and Canaan. How they live, you are not to live, so we can suppose that what follows is an indictment of those nations. We know that sibling marriages occurred in the royal houses of Egypt. As to the rest, it may hinge on the polytheistic nature of the areas that led to such license. God emphasizes that these are their “ordinances,” and at the end of the chapter, he enjoins them to follow his instead. The term translated “ordinances” is the same word translated as “statutes” in verse five. Statutes may be a better translation of the Hebrew term because its primary sense is “things inscribed.” Beginning in verse six, “None of you” should be translated as “no man” because that’s the verbiage, and it can be inferred that the man takes the initiative in such acts. The only exception here is in verse twenty-three, where the woman engages in bestiality.  

Noted among the various prohibited relations is the fact that many patriarchs did what the law says not to do. Jacob married two sisters; Abraham says Sarah is a sister (albeit half), and David’s daughter Tamar thinks her father can arrange a marriage with her brother, Amnon. Of course, the patriarchs can’t be held to the standard since it didn’t exist when they were alive; David lived afterwards. The Law, however, now rectifies that. 

Sandwiched between chapters eighteen and twenty, chapter nineteen seems out of place. However, the understanding is that what God asks of them is juxtaposed with the nations of Egypt and Canaan. Whereas the other two chapters appear to revolve around perverse negatives, chapter nineteen presents positives for a person to do to remain pleasing to God. Verse three begins a paraphrase of the Ten Commandments. Since they would have been an agricultural economy, the edges of their fields and what they dropped would have been like a tax for the poor. We see this vividly exercised in the book of Ruth. The same verbiage is used in verse twenty-seven. The likely prohibition there concerns pagan funerary customs. 

There are a few key words throughout these chapters worth noting. One is “abomination,” and it’s attributed to male homosexual relations (Lev. 18:22; 20:13). This term appears several times throughout Lev. 18:26–30. This causes Israel to be impure and the land nauseous. By not doing this, Israel will distinguish itself from the inhabitants of the land. This term is elsewhere attributed to idolatry (Deut. 12:31; 13:15), false weights (Deut. 25:13–16), transvestism (Deut. 22:5), and remarrying a divorced wife (Deut. 24:4). 

Another term we see is “wickedness.” It’s used in relations with a woman and her daughter or granddaughter (Lev. 18:17; 20:14). It’s also employed in one prostituting her own daughter (Lev. 19:29). What’s somewhat surprising is that a word meaning “kindness” is used as a homonym. It’s translated as “wicked thing” in Lev. 20:17, but it carries the meaning of “disgrace” or “shame” (cf. Prov. 25:9–10). A final term is “perversion” (Lev. 18:23). Its root means “to mix,” so here it’s the act of interspecies mating (Lev. 20:12). Closing the section is another reference, as it began: don’t do as the nations do (Lev. 20:23–25). This uses language similar to that in chapter 11 regarding pure and impure animals. 

Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement; Lev. 16-17)

The telling of the Day of Atonement begins with the reminder of Aaron’s sons’ deaths. Aaron is alert to the mortal danger that he and those who succeed him could face when they enter the Holy of Holies on this day. “When they come forward” (16:1) is a verb regularly used regarding appearing before the divine presence. Whenever unsanctioned, you’ll usually see a different verb that’s translated as “to encroach.” The cover of the ark in Hebrew is kaporet, and the term for atonement is closely related: kipur. There on the cover, blood is sprinkled and atonement made. In the Greek Old Testament, the word is “propitiation” in English. 

When we arrive at 16:8, there’s a term translated as “scapegoat.” In Hebrew, it’s a proper name: Azazel. The name could mean something like, “The rage of God,” or “God is fierce/strong.” In Mesopotamian and Phoenician sources, there’s a god named Azuz/Aziz. Since the gods are demons, this may refer to a demoted demon. The goat that goes to the Lord is sacrificed, while the scapegoat that goes to Azazel is sent to the wilderness, carrying the sins of Israel away from the Lord (16:21–22). The goat sent to Azazel isn’t sacrificed and is sent to the desert, a place connected with chaos and death. Therefore, Azazel receives the impurity as an elimination ritual. When the Old Testament was translated into Greek, the terms used for Azazel were rendered as “the one who eliminates” or “the one who wards off evil.” In Greek religion, these were divine agents responsible for warding off evil. Why is it translated as “scapegoat?” In Hebrew, ‘ez is how you translate “goat.” 

It’s not only the people that receive atonement, but secondarily, it’s the temple and altar (16:16, 18–20, 33). Considering the sacrifices throughout the year to atone for accumulated sins, pollution threatens the holiness of the tabernacle. This purgation scrubs the holy precinct clean, making it viable for another year’s worth of sacrifices. The people are told to afflict themselves (16:29–31). A rabbinical writing states, “On Yom Kippur one is prohibited from eating, drinking, bathing, anointing, wearing sandals, and engaging in sexual intercourse” (M. Yoma 8.1). Self-neglect is an expression of grief over sins and of repentance. 

While chapter 16 is addressed to Aaron, chapter 17 begins with an address to him, his sons, and Israel. From chapter 17 through chapter 26, a code of holiness appears for all of the people. This is seen in verse three when God instructs “every man of the house of Israel.” If a priest doesn’t sprinkle some of the blood on the altar, the man is regarded as guilty of murder (17:4). The offering of the blood to God is a manner of atonement, but not offering is murder. There’s another allusion to Azazel in 17:7. Our English versions read, “demons,” but it’s literally “goat-demons.” Some suggest that Azazel was half-man and half-goat based on this description. These may have been archaic gods of the wild that people believed in, but that God uses in his own way, because just as monogamy is a metaphor for monotheism, so playing the harlot is an act of promiscuity.

Ritual Purity (Lev. 11-15)

Moses explains ways that make one unclean and how to remedy that. He begins with land animals. Though the term is translated “earth” in verse two, what follows makes it clear that he is referring to land animals. Much of what we read about dietary practices appears in Deuteronomy 14. These two sections differ beginning in verse thirty-one. Before we get ahead of ourselves, we’ll note that after land animals, he turns to those in the water, followed by those of the air, amphibians, reptiles, and insects. The prohibition of pork among the Israelites is somewhat unique to them. Archaeological evidence shows a smaller number of pork bones dating to the second millennium BC in the Eastern part of Canaan. This proves that the taboo was observed at least that early. In other parts of Canaan, pork bones are plentiful. Later, Isaiah would associate the consumption of pork with idolatry (Is. 66:17). These dietary laws make a statement about Israel within the created order. They separate themselves from everyone else by this. Connected to impurity is death (11:24). Since this isn’t the state in which God envisioned humanity, to contact such renders a person unclean. Concluding chapter eleven is a call to holiness. The term translated “to distinguish” in 11:47 is the term used in the creation account (Gen. 1:6–7). Also, the phrase, “according to its kind in this chapter is also used in the creation account. In the hierarchy of creation, Israelites were to divide themselves between the unclean and the clean. 

The notion that the blood of childbirth was impure was widespread in antiquity. The Hittites and Greeks held the same belief. The loss of blood was associated with death. All in all, she is prohibited from sacred things and places for forty days. This number is doubled if she bears a daughter. There’s no rationale as to why that is. A better rendering of the offering she should bring should be “offense” and not “sin” (12:6). Moving on, leprosy is addressed in chapter thirteen in broad terms and not very specifically. The phrase “leprous sore” in 13:3 is, in more modern translations, rendered as a “skin blanch.” That’s to say a loss of pigmentation. Once more, there’s an association with death. The quarantining of a leprous person, or anyone unclean, was for medicinal purposes in the case of transmission. It also set apart death from life; uncleanness from cleanness. 

Notice at the beginning of chapter fourteen that the leper has been put out of the camp (14:3). The life of a leper once declared as such was isolating in many ways. On the one hand, in the previous chapter, the leper was to cover their mouth and shout that they were unclean if another person came near them. Additionally, they were ostracized from society. This is another theme of exile: exile from Eden, the scapegoat sent into the desert, exile from the Promised Land, etc. Anytime you read about living water, it refers to running water, such as a river or stream. This water carried the blood, and, hence, impurity, away from the camp. The living bird sent to the open country mirrors the scapegoat in taking away the transgressions from the camp. The reason leprosy is associated with guilt is likely because it was thought of as a punishment for some transgression (cf. Num. 12:10–15; 2 Chron. 26:16–21). Once again, we see blood and oil used together in cleansing (14:17). 

Chapter fifteen is primarily concerned with bodily discharges of various types. This can also be conveyed through secondary contact, as noted in verses four and nine. Once more in verse fifteen, an offense offering should be thought of rather than a sin offering. The contaminated person isn’t sinning by having this, but he is unclean because of it. While these instructions are primarily for Levites and priests, the whole point is to ensure they don’t enter the sacred space of the tabernacle in a way that would invite God’s wrath against them. This also extends to the average Israelite, who brings various sacrifices at the prescribed times. 

Priestly Requirements (Lev. 8-10)

For the first time in the book, Leviticus is written in narrative form. Chapter eight begins and ends with the phrase, “So Moses did as the LORD commanded him” (vv. 4, 36). The installation ceremony of the priests picks up in Exodus 29. Reading that chapter in Exodus reminded me of the coronation of King Charles. An elaborate set of procedures follows, during which the priests are formally purified and sanctified for the ministry. Midway through the seventh verse, the Hebrew transitions from the plural “him,” referring to Aaron’s sons, to the singular, focusing on Aaron. What are the Urim and Thummim? Many possibilities have been considered, but the traditional interpretation associates the terms with “light” and “perfection.” Interestingly, Urim begins with the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and Thummim starts with the last letter. They appeared to have been used as a binary response to a question posed: yes/no, guilty/innocent. 

Since the men had bathed, anointing oil was a way of entering a festive state, as when, after mourning, David rose, bathed, and anointed himself (2 Sam. 12:20). The specific spices and oil used are detailed in Exodus 30:22–25. Other ancient Near Eastern parallels suggest anointing with oil was a way to ward off bad spirits or evil forces. In this case, the anointing elevates the men and instruments of the tabernacle from the common to the divine. Following the anointing oil is the blood of sacrifice. It may be best to think of the former as consecrational and the latter as a “detergent” that rids it of impurities. It’s been suggested that the ear corresponds to obedience, while the hand and toe are emblems of human agency. 

After their period of consecration, the priests are now ready to prepare the tabernacle for God’s presence. Thus far, His glory has filled the tabernacle, but it’s being prepared to be regarded as akin to Mount Sinai. Each has three levels: 

Sinai Tabernacle

Summit (only Moses) Holy of Holies

Partyway up (elders) Sanctuary

Bottom (people) Court

Towards the end, Aaron raises his hand and blesses the people, likely invoking the tripartite blessing recorded in Numbers 6:24–26. God, then, reveals himself through fire, consuming the sacrifice and showing divine acceptance. This same fire, we will see, will be used lethally. 

Though we’ve already read about Nadab (Generous) and Abihu (He is my father), there’s more to consider in this story. Typically, they would have filled fire pans with glowing coals and not an actual fire. They introduce an alien fire, so the fire of God consumes them. The word translated as “strange” fire can also be translated as “alien” and “unfit.” Whatever this fire is and where it came from, it wasn’t consecrated for entrance into the precinct. In verse two, the exact phrase we read in 9:24 appears. God forbade ordinary mourning over what occurred, but it seems that an allowance is made at the end of the chapter. Aaron is allowed not to partake in the offering of the offense, fasting being a common practice during mourning. 

The Various Sacrifices and Their Administration (Lev. 1-7)

Leviticus chapters 1–7 are about the various sacrifices that are offered to cover one’s sins. It’s a constant reminder of both God’s grace and justice. He wants to forgive, but punishment must be meted out. The animals that die take the place of the sinner, and this has been the case since the fall. When Adam and Eve sinned, they made garments for themselves from fig leaves (Gen. 3:7). The term there, translated as “coverings,” literally means “loincloths.” Later in that chapter, God made coats of skin (Gen. 3:21). A sacrifice was necessary to “cover” humanity’s sins. Hence, this practice in the tabernacle is a continuation of the first covering of sin. 

Exodus concludes with Moses’ inability to enter the tabernacle because of God’s glory. Leviticus begins with God calling Moses from the tabernacle. The first chapter details the burnt offering, which was the offering of a whole animal. If a person were affluent enough, they would offer a bull. If not, a goat; the most humble offering was turtledoves and pigeons. After Jesus was circumcised, Mary and Joseph presented the most humble offering they could (Luke 2:24), indicating her lowly station in life. In chapter two, grain offerings are detailed. Even if a person did not have livestock, they were still allowed to present a sacrifice. The term translated as “grain offering” has the primary meaning of “a tributary payment,” suggesting that the offerer was a vassal of God. They were to be presented with salt (Lev. 2:13). On the one hand, salt made food palatable (Job 6:6). Still, it was also a sign of the perpetuity of a covenant (Num. 18:19). This may have been what Jesus had in mind when he called his disciples “the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13). 

The peace offering (Lev. 3) is a way to surrender to God since sin puts a person in a state of hostility to God (Rom. 5:10–11). By the fourth chapter, a new category of sacrifices begins, with the first being the sin offering. This was offered to expunge the effects of an inadvertent sin, also called the sin of omission.  This sacrifice is communal and also individual (Lev. 4:13, 22, 27). The trespass offerings of chapter five move beyond unintentional to intentional. Confession accompanies this offering (Lev. 5:5). After this, we return to unintentional (Lev. 5:14, 17) sins towards holy relics. This is a restitutional offering. It also extends to other people and returns to intentions (Lev. 6). Next, the Lord gives the various laws regarding the respective sacrifices and how they are to be carried out by the priests. One stipulation is that no blood or fat is to be consumed (Lev. 7:22–27; cf. Acts 15:20). 

How to Read Leviticus Without Getting Discouraged

Many Christians plan to read their Bibles through in a year. Typically, they begin at the beginning, and by the time they arrive at the latter part of Exodus, it becomes cumbersome. Then, once you get to Leviticus, you might find yourself a tad discouraged. Here’s another way to look at Leviticus.

A mother had instructed her son not to play in a particular part of the woods behind their house because it was occupied by a family of skunks. One day, however, the son decided to inspect this area to learn more about skunks, since his curiosity was too intense to resist. At first glance, they seemed like cats, but with specific coloring. He moved in to see if he could hold one, but the younger ones moved away as the father stood his ground. As skunks often will do to warn, the father walked on his two front feet, putting the rest of his body in the air, as if he were walking on his hands. The little boy thought the skunk was doing a trick, so he moved closer, and then the father lifted his tail, took aim, and sprayed the boy with the noxious odor to repel him. 

The boy ran frantically home, coughing and choking over the stench. As he cried out for his mother, she came to the front porch, and as her beloved son approached, she caught a whiff of the skunk and knew what had happened. She commanded the boy to stop because she couldn’t tolerate the odor. She didn’t stop loving her son, but he wouldn’t come into the house smelling like that. So what did the mother do? She didn’t hate her son. She didn’t reject her son. She wanted to help him. She prepared one of their troughs with a solution made of laundry detergent, peroxide, and baking soda. She placed her son in the trough and scrubbed him till the smell was gone. Then, he was able to come into the house, sit in his mother’s lap, and be comforted. When we think about sin and its effect, it’s similar to this story. We have become tainted by sin and its odorous effect, so we can’t come into God’s presence. However, God doesn’t look at us with hatred and malice, but with compassion and grace. He prepares a solution for us so that our sins may be removed and we can come into His presence once more.

When God chose His special people, Israel, He wished to dwell among them. However, for Israel to live in God’s presence, God provided remedies by which He could dwell in their midst, and they could approach Him. This is what we read about in the book of Leviticus. What’s important to remember is the ending of Exodus, however, because it gives sense to the first verse of Leviticus. 

Then the cloud covered the tabernacle of meeting, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle. And Moses was not able to enter the tabernacle of meeting, because the cloud rested above it, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle. Whenever the cloud was taken up from above the tabernacle, the children of Israel would go onward in all their journeys. But if the cloud was not taken up, then they did not journey till the day that it was taken up. For the cloud of the LORD was above the tabernacle by day, and fire was over it by night, in the sight of all the house of Israel, throughout all their journeys. (Exod. 40:34–38)

The glory—kavod literally means “weightiness”—of God is best thought of as a mantle of light enveloping God, and the cloud gave off the luminosity by day and appeared as fire by night.¹ When Moses first saw the Lord’s presence in the burning bush, he hid his face because he was afraid to look upon God (Exod. 3:6). Later, however, Moses’ faith in God had grown exponentially to the point that he wanted to see the glory of God. Still, he couldn’t see anything but the “goodness,” because seeing God’s face would have killed Moses (Exod. 33:18–23). Even then, God protected Moses from seeing Him. 

After Moses communed with Yahweh, he came from Mt. Sinai with his face shining (Exod. 34:29–35). There’s a great lesson from this passage: The fear of Israel upon seeing Moses’ face parallels that of their fear of drawing near to God. Similarly, because Moses would cover his face with a veil when among Israel, this demonstrates that the holy of holies had to be partitioned off and enveloped in layers, yet accessible to the people.² Now, when we arrive at Leviticus, the question arises: “How can a people stained with sin live among the holiness of which they are afraid?” For the priests of Israel and the rituals prescribed in Leviticus, God provides in His mercy and grace the ways that He can be among a sinful people, and they dwell in His holy presence. It’s best to think of God’s holiness as the sun, which in its unadulterated form is powerful, and anything mortal that gets near it will burn up. The sun doesn’t hate such things but consumes them. 

To outline Leviticus, we must identify its three major components: Sacrifices (Lev. 1–7, 23–37), Priests (Lev. 8–10, 21–22), and Purity (Lev. 11–15, 18–20). The sacrifices are ways to say “thank you” (i.e., grain and fellowship offerings) or “I’m sorry” (burnt, sin, and guilt offerings). Some of these occur on holy days when festivals were held. These were times of celebration to retell Israel’s history and explain why God chose them. Mediating these sacrifices were individual representatives who advocated for the people, called “priests.” These servants worked so closely to God’s presence that they were chosen to represent God to the people and the people to God. Such people were ordained and had to live by higher standards, similar to those of our pastors. Finally, the purity laws concerned cleanliness and uncleanliness. Cleanliness or purity is a state in which one can be in God’s presence, whereas the opposite is that of uncleanliness. Some of these concerned sexual relationships, social justice, and interpersonal relationships. These categories summarize the second-greatest command: to love your neighbor as yourself. Summing up the greatest commandment to love God with our whole being, we find that it includes dietary laws, skin diseases, dead bodies, and bodily fluids. Many of the latter three concerned life and death: one was sacred, and the others resulted from sin. Going before God in an impure state was inappropriate. 

Tucked in the middle of the book is the Day of Atonement. On this day, the entire nation had sinned, perhaps unnoticed and unknown. The high priest would atone for the whole country by taking two goats and slaying one whose blood was brought to God’s presence to atone for the sins. God has said that the blood of a creature was life, so the life of the goat was to take the place of Israel and the penalty of their sin. The other goat was presented to the priest, who would lay his hand upon its head, confess the sins of the nation, and send the goat out into the wilderness, carrying the sins of the country away from them into the barren land. By this goat, God graciously removed Israel’s sins. 

Christ became not only our high priest but did so while being tempted yet remaining pure (Heb. 4:14–16). As the high priest, not only offered the perfect offering but was Himself the offering so that He could go into the true holy of holies to minister for us (Heb. 9:11–14). What we learn from Leviticus only prepares us for the cross. Jesus Christ is now how we may live in the presence of the holy God. 

¹ Robert Alter, The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with a Commentary (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004), 535.

² Ibid., 513. 

Mount Ebal Produces the Oldest Hebrew Inscription

Years ago, one of my professors and I casually discussed God’s providence. Because my studies centered on the canon of the Great Books of the Western World, compiled by Mortimer Adler, I often read works based on the Enlightenment and unkind to faith. As we spoke, I made a point that around the time of these critiques was when archaeology was surging. While many “scholars” criticized the Bible for, as they claimed, not being based on history, archaeologists were discovering artifacts confirming the Bible’s history.

In Deuteronomy 27:15–26, Moses instructed the Levites to lead Israel from Mount Ebal with eleven curses against anyone who partakes in idolatry, dishonors their parents, or moves their neighbor’s boundary stone. In Joshua 8:30, Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal after taking Ai, where he repeated the curses of Moses. In the 1980s, archaeologists sifted through Mount Ebal, cataloging discoveries. In 2019, discarded material thought to be irrelevant was examined further. Recently, an amulet was run through an x-ray tomographic measurement to reveal a hidden text—“You are cursed by God YHW.” The YHW is God’s name, often considered “Yahweh.”

One scholar believes the inscription dates to the 13th century BC, which was the time that Joshua and Israel settled in the land of Canaan. Others believe it is older, making this discovery the oldest Hebrew inscription. Before this discovery, the oldest Hebrew inscription dated to the late tenth century, which is the period during which Saul and David were kings.

What’s neat, at least to me, is how these discoveries confirm the biblical account and do so in the timeline established. Since some think this inscription is older than the 13th century—the timeline of Joshua—it is likely that it was during Moses’ lifetime—roughly the middle of the fifteenth century onward. While some continue to doubt the Scriptures, plenty of evidence confirms their historicity. Hopefully, we have faith enough that we don’t need this evidence to “prove” what we already believe. Instead, it is nice to see the confirmation of a divinely given, inspired Bible. 

Nearing Moab

I want us to keep in mind that we’ve all been given moments of mercy, not what we deserve. So much of what we can say about Israel in Numbers in some way or another could be said about us. We, too, are obstinate, rebellious complainers. Maybe not all the time, but enough of the time that we should deserve what God might give us. Yet, we have mercy. 

Miriam was dead, Aaron had recently died, and Israel was getting closer to the Promised Land. Everything that occurs from the waters of Meribah to the end of Numbers does so in one year, and it’s a busy year. After a thirty-day mourning period for Israel’s first high priest, a brief skirmish broke out when a Canaanite king heard that Israel was in transit to the land. Then, after they were utterly destroyed, Israel returns to her ways of disobedience and striving against God. 

Speaking against God and Moses because of discouragement (Num. 21:4), Israel hits replay on a somewhat regular complaint that they’ve had, “Why have you brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? There is no food and no water, and our soul loathes this worthless bread” (Num. 21:5). God sent seraphim nahasim (fiery serpents) among the people so that many of them died. This may seem mean on God’s part, but He had already said that this generation wouldn’t see the Promised Land. Rather than seeing God as the one misbehaving, we ought to see Israel’s behavior as faithless and blasphemous. Once more, the people go to Moses (you know, the guy they spoke against) and ask that he pray to God. God gives a moment of mercy: a fiery serpent is fashioned out of bronze, and anyone bitten who looked upon it did not die. 

As Israel continues their trek through the wilderness, they send messengers ahead asking for safe passage. When it’s denied, they are once more forced to fight and defeat their enemies. As they enter the plains of Moab, the king of Moab, Balak devises a plan. Because Moab and Midian were petrified at the prospect of Israel entering their territory, Balak sends for Balaam to come and curse the people (Num. 22:6). However, God intervenes (Num. 22:12). Balak sends for him once again, and Balaam replies (Num. 22:18). God instructs Balaam to go with them should they come again, but he is only to speak the words given to him by God and nothing else. 

As Balaam goes the following day, an exciting thing occurs. As he rode his donkey, the angel of the Lord stands in his path, but only the donkey sees it. She turns aside, Balaam strikes her. She crushes his foot against a wall. He strikes her. She laid down, and he hit her. The Lord opened the donkey’s mouth to speak to Balaam, then his eyes were opened, and he saw the angel of the Lord. Perhaps to emphasize to him that he ought to be careful to speak only what God tells him, Balaam gets the point (Num. 22:38). Balaam pronounces several prophecies in favor of Israel. God blesses these disobedient, complaining, obstinate people. We see here a moment of mercy. 

While in Moab, Israelite men consort with Moabite women and begin their idolatry (Num. 25:1-3). God orders the judges of Israel to kill their men who played the harlot. Israel, meanwhile, weeps at the doors of the tent of meeting when one Israelite man takes a Moabite woman to the tent of meeting. Phineas, a priest, so moved with zeal, runs them both through with a spear. Seeing this and knowing Phineas’ heart, God relents from the harm He is visiting upon the guilty. Once more, we see a moment of mercy. 

As the year goes on, another census is ordered, and inheritance laws are given. Then, Moses is instructed to go atop Mount Abarim and view the land Israel is to possess. God reminds Moses of his rebellion and wouldn’t enter the land (Num. 27:12-14). Moses only requests that a worthy successor be chosen to take his place once he’s gathered to his people. God selects Joshua (Num. 27:18-21). This is a moment of mercy because God doesn’t leave Israel without a leader. Offerings are made, and laws are given, then Israel settles east of the Jordan (Num. 32). Next, God gives instructions for the conquest (Num. 33:50-56). Further administrative commands are given, but before Israel takes the land, they’re to be reminded, once more, of the law of Moses. That’s what Deuteronomy is, a second giving of the law. 

Israel in Paran

Most of us have been on a trip we looked forward to. Leading up to the trip, we packed, planned, and made sure we were prepared. Then comes the time to leave. We set out and go on our way, excited and ready to arrive. However, traffic jams, plane delays, and other things make the actual travel part miserable. We become impatient, tempers flare, and before you know it, if we’re not careful, the trip could be ruined by a conflict due to these circumstances. 

Israel is en route to Paran, and as they neared the area, the people began to complain (Num. 11). After God gave a solution, one might think that all is well. Now, however, there’s discord among the leadership. The High Priest, Aaron, and Moses’ sister, Miriam (a prophetess), begin to oppose Moses’ leadership. Jealousy seeped in among them, and they, first, took issue that Moses was married to an Ethiopian woman. Talk about nitpicking. Of course, when you consider the law and its command not to marry among other nations, we might see why they became frustrated. Nevertheless, rather than staying on point with finding issues in his choice of spouses, they turn to Moses’ leadership (Num. 12:1-2). 

Even more interesting is Numbers 12:3, which has led to the (wise) suggestion that the book was redacted. Otherwise, could we believe that Moses would have said that about himself? No matter, because this was said, God heard it and dealt with the issue, explaining Moses’s special relationship with Him. This resulted in a plague upon Miriam that Moses interceded on her behalf (Num. 12:6-16). 

The challenge to God’s authority figure, Moses, doesn’t end here. As Israel encamps in Paran, spies are sent to scope out Canaan. This isn’t a quick day trip. They spend forty days spying out the land (Num. 13:25). The land itself looked appealing, but it was populated with solid people. Caleb quieted the people and urged them to possess it, but those who went with him deterred the nation (Num. 13:30-33). Caleb and Joshua were the only ones of the spies to demonstrate faith in God’s ability (Num. 14:6-10). 

God, as you might imagine, is tired of Israel’s demeanor. Unfortunately, this isn’t the first time they’ve misbehaved either (Num. 14:22), so their punishment is that they will not enter the Promised Land (Num. 14:23). Those who led a rebellion of unfaithfulness suggested returning to Egypt, and God judged them except for Caleb and Joshua because they had faith. After the news that they’d not enter the Promised Land, the people didn’t take this consequence well but did an about-face and mounted an assault to enter the land, but were repelled. 

The rebellion doesn’t stop there. Korah, a Levite, challenges Aaron and Moses’ authority. Everything up to this point occurred in one year, but Korah’s rebellion occurred nineteen years later. This also didn’t end well (Num. 16), so God demonstrated His chosen by causing Aaron’s staff to bud before the entire nation (Num. 17). Afterward, instructions are given regarding the Levites (Num. 18-19). Another nineteen years later, Israel sets out to continue their journey and arrive at Kadesh. Moses’ sister dies and is buried in Kadesh. 

Yet, another issue arises, demanding attention. There’s no water, and, as you might imagine, the Israelites become melodramatic once more, wishing they would die—these people. Moses has a horrible lapse in judgment too. God told Moses to take Aaron’s rod, speak to the rock, and it would give water, but Moses, in anger at the congregation, strikes the rock twice. God isn’t thrilled about this. As a result, Moses is accused of not hallowing the Lord and will not be allowed to enter the Promised Land (Num. 20:10-12).

Reading Numbers

Oxford University is believed to be the world’s second-oldest university. Some records show classes as early as 1096, but the establishment of the university isn’t altogether clear. Around the year 1230, they began appointing a vice-chancellor to run the school. In 2015, after 785 years, the first woman was nominated to be vice-chancellor, Professor Louise Richardson. Given the rise in women’s suffrage in the early twentieth century, and many laws granting women equality in the ’60s and ’70s, you might have thought that this day would have arrived sooner. Yet, as we always say, “better late than never.” Some might say, “That took longer than it should have.” 

When you think about the Book of Numbers, think, “That took longer than it should have.” From Exodus 19 all the way through Numbers 10, Israel is in Sinai. From Sinai to the Promised Land is a two-week journey, but Israel will wander in the wilderness for forty years. It takes longer than it should. The name of this book in Hebrews is not “Numbers,” but bamidbar, which translates to, “In the wilderness.” The book can be broken up into three sections: chapters 1-10 are in Sinai; chapters 13-19 are in Paran; chapters 22-36 are in Moab. The chapters not mentioned in this list are the chapters of their traveling from place to place. 

Why is it called the Book of Numbers? In the opening of the book, God orders that Israel be numbered. He even tells Moses how to organize the people in the camp. God’s presence is central to the people, His dwelling place being in the tabernacle (Num. 2:17). Surrounding him are the Levites and priests, and surrounding them are the rest of the tribes. God’s presence in the center of the nation is meant to convey that He is central to their existence. Over the tabernacle is a cloud indicative of His presence, and when the cloud moves, they move (Num. 9:15-19). The Levites break down and carry the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant (Num. 1:47-53). The ark leads the way to communicate that God leads Israel, and the tribe of Judah follows immediately behind with the other tribes in tow. 

So why did it take longer than it should have? Because Israel followed God, and God hindered them from the Promised Land. This book is about why, and the why, simply answered, is Israel’s unbelief and sin. 

Chapters 1-10

Notice, first, where we are in time. We are two years removed from the Exodus (Num. 1:1). God has Moses organize and number the entire nation, which we can guess took some time. Then, He orders for the special role of the Levites (Num. 3:5-13). From there onward, the Levites as a whole are numbered, and the various heads of the families of the Levites are given their special roles. The sons of Kohath were responsible for carrying the holy furniture of the tabernacle (Num. 4:1-20). The sons of Gershon were to carry the structure of the tabernacle (Num. 4:21-28). The sons of Merari were to carry, if you will, the nuts and bolts of the tabernacle (Num. 4:29-33). Imagine a package arrives for a new desk, but it’s one you have to build. In one bag are the nuts and bolts, then there are the actual parts of the desk, and, finally, the things you put in and on it. This is sort of the division of the Levites as it regarded the tabernacle. They were charged with maintaining the sacred space. 

God gives instructions regarding lepers, restitution, and unfaithful wives (ch. 5). Then, He gives the outline for the law of the Nazarite, a person who wanted to consecrate themselves to God for a specified period. One specific aspect of this vow, among others, was that a Nazarite’s hair was to remain uncut while keeping the vow (e.g. Samson). Aaron is given the word of the Lord as to how he can bless the children of Israel (Num. 6:22-27). Hereafter, the leaders of Israel present offerings to the Lord and they celebrate their second Passover. Afterward, God ordered two silver trumpets, shofars, made to sound to call Israel to relocate and in battle. Then, they leave Sinai. 

Everything seems to be going well. That is until Israel begins to complain only after three days of travel. These people seem to be more of a settled than moving people. They complain because they miss the land of slavery’s food, and they’re sick of manna (Num. 11:4-6). Even Moses becomes exasperated (Num. 11:11-15). Leadership isn’t always pomp and circumstance. The only time many leaders hear from people is when there are complaints. Be sure that you don’t only go to the elders of ministers when you’re unhappy. I’ll tell you now if that’s all you approach me for, it won’t be long before I actually quit listening to you and you’ll lose any effectiveness you may have. Complaining isn’t a spiritual gift, so don’t use it as one. 

God gave Moses aid in seventy elders on whom He gave His Spirit. One man shouldn’t bear the burden alone. Even seventy among the many of Israel is too little, but it’s better than nothing. Then, he listened to the people and promised to give them meat for one month, to the point that they loathed it. How quickly we go from zeal to dissatisfaction. Only because circumstances change and we aren’t as comfortable as we once were. Sometimes following God and His plan takes us out of our comfort zone and makes us move. Israel wasn’t meant to reside at Sinai, and they couldn’t see the forest for the trees. God was taking them to a wonderful land, a place better than where they were and had been. But, getting there was too hard. Don’t be afraid to put in the work. Don’t allow comfort to paralyze you. If it seems or is known to be God’s plan, trust Him and go.